Carbohydrate is one of the principal fuels used during endurance exercise.
But different carbohydrates are digested and delivered differently.
Glucose provides carbohydrate very rapidly. TREHA® trehalose consists of two glucose molecules joined together and must first be broken down by the intestinal enzyme trehalase before the resulting glucose can be absorbed.
Human studies show that this produces a substantially more gradual blood-glucose and insulin response than consuming glucose directly.[1]
For sports nutrition, that creates an interesting proposition.
TREHA® provides genuine carbohydrate energy, but with metabolic characteristics that differ from rapidly absorbed sugars.
Over the past two decades, researchers have investigated trehalose before and during prolonged exercise in cyclists, runners and recreationally trained participants. The studies now include carbohydrate-oxidation measurements, prolonged endurance protocols, repeated high-intensity exercise and direct cycling-performance trials.[2–8]
The emerging picture is consistent:
Trehalose is a usable exercise carbohydrate that delivers glucose more gradually than faster-digested carbohydrate sources and can support endurance performance under the conditions tested.
Why Carbohydrate Matters During Endurance Exercise
The body can produce energy from both fat and carbohydrate.
Fat reserves are relatively large, while carbohydrate is stored in much more limited quantities, principally as:
- muscle glycogen
- liver glycogen
- circulating glucose.
As exercise becomes longer or more intense, carbohydrate availability becomes increasingly important.
This is why endurance athletes commonly consume carbohydrate:
- before exercise
- during long training sessions
- during races
- between prolonged bouts of activity.
TREHA® ultimately provides glucose and therefore contributes to this carbohydrate supply.
What makes it different is how quickly that glucose becomes available.
A More Gradual Glucose and Insulin Response
Controlled human research provides the foundation for the sports-nutrition story.
In a crossover study comparing 25 g trehalose with 25 g glucose, trehalose produced only 38% of the two-hour glucose response and 36% of the insulin response observed with glucose.[1]
Peak blood glucose reached:
- 154 mg/dL after glucose
- 111 mg/dL after trehalose.[1]
Trehalose therefore supplied carbohydrate without producing the same rapid rise in blood glucose and insulin seen after free glucose.
That difference prompted researchers to investigate whether trehalose could be useful around prolonged exercise.
For a wider examination of the blood-glucose research, see Trehalose and Blood Sugar: What Does the Research Show? →.
Trehalose Before Exercise
One of the earliest exercise studies came from the Human Performance Laboratory at the University of Birmingham.[2]
Eight well-trained male cyclists consumed 75 g of either:
- trehalose
- glucose
- galactose
45 minutes before exercise.
They then completed 20 minutes of submaximal cycling followed immediately by a cycling time trial.
Glucose produced a much larger rise in blood glucose and insulin before exercise.
The insulin increase following glucose was more than twice that seen following trehalose.[2]
Trehalose therefore produced a substantially flatter pre-exercise metabolic response.
Fewer Cases of Rebound Hypoglycaemia
The same experiment produced another interesting result.
During the initial steady-state exercise:
- 4 of 8 cyclists experienced rebound hypoglycaemia after glucose
- 1 of 8 experienced it after trehalose.[2]
Rebound hypoglycaemia can occur when rapidly absorbed carbohydrate consumed shortly before exercise produces a strong insulin response and exercise begins while insulin remains elevated.
Trehalose's more gradual digestion produced a different pattern.
The study did not demonstrate a significant advantage in the subsequent time trial, but it established a useful characteristic for sports nutrition:
Pre-exercise trehalose produced a much smaller glucose and insulin response than glucose and was associated with fewer cases of rebound hypoglycaemia under the conditions tested.[2]
Trehalose Is Used as Fuel During Exercise
The next important question was whether trehalose was merely digested slowly or whether athletes could actually use it as a meaningful source of carbohydrate during exercise.
A 2008 study addressed this directly.[3]
Nine trained participants cycled for 150 minutes at 55% of maximal power while consuming:
- trehalose
- maltose
- water.
The carbohydrate drinks supplied approximately 1.1 g of carbohydrate per minute.[3]
Using isotope techniques, the researchers measured oxidation of the ingested carbohydrate.
Trehalose was clearly being used as an external carbohydrate fuel.[3]
Total carbohydrate oxidation was significantly higher with both trehalose and maltose than with water.
This established an important point:
TREHA® is not simply a low-sweetness carbohydrate. Its glucose can be absorbed and used to produce energy during prolonged exercise.
A More Gradual Fuel Than Maltose
The same experiment demonstrated a clear difference between trehalose and faster-digested maltose.
Peak oxidation of ingested carbohydrate was approximately:
- 0.73 g/min for trehalose
- 1.01 g/min for maltose.[3]
Trehalose was therefore used more gradually.
This helps define where TREHA® may fit within endurance nutrition.
It is not designed to be the fastest possible route for carbohydrate delivery.
Its distinguishing characteristic is the combination of usable carbohydrate energy with a more gradual pattern of digestion and oxidation.
Carbohydrate and Fat Use During Prolonged Exercise
Trehalose may also influence the balance between carbohydrate and fat metabolism.
During the 150-minute cycling experiment, fat oxidation was:
- highest with water
- lowest with maltose
- intermediate with trehalose.[3]
In other words, trehalose supplied meaningful external carbohydrate while fat continued to contribute more strongly than it did with the faster carbohydrate.
Later research has examined this relationship more directly.
A 2019 study compared an 8% trehalose solution with an 8% glucose solution and water during prolonged cycling incorporating repeated high-intensity exercise.[4]
Measured lipid oxidation was approximately:
- 12.5 g/hour with trehalose
- 9.3 g/hour with glucose.[4]
Trehalose was also associated with higher average and maximum power during parts of the exercise protocol.[4]
These findings make trehalose particularly interesting where sustained exercise requires contributions from both carbohydrate and fat metabolism.
Supporting Prolonged Exercise
Further research published in 2021 compared:
- water
- an 8% glucose drink
- an 8% trehalose drink
during prolonged cycling with repeated high-intensity efforts.[5]
Trehalose produced a metabolic pattern consistent with greater preservation of endogenous carbohydrate during the later stages of exercise.[5]
The researchers concluded that trehalose ingestion helped maintain prolonged exercise performance under the conditions tested.[5]
This fits with the wider research picture: trehalose provides carbohydrate, but does so differently from rapidly digested glucose.
Evidence from Trained Distance Runners
Trehalose has also been investigated in trained runners.
A 2020 randomised crossover study recruited ten male collegiate distance runners.[6]
Participants consumed 300 mL containing:
- 6% trehalose
- 6% glucose
- water
before completing sustained exercise and repeated maximal efforts.
Trehalose produced the highest mean power output across the exercise tests.[6]
The difference was statistically significant against both glucose and water during the first 10-minute exercise bout and during the final 30-second sprint.[6]
The authors concluded that trehalose could enhance exercise performance under the conditions investigated.
This is useful because the evidence is not confined to one cycling experiment or one type of endurance athlete.
How Concentrated Does a Trehalose Drink Need to Be?
Researchers have also investigated trehalose concentration.
A 2022 randomised crossover study examined:
- 8% glucose
- 8% trehalose
- 6% trehalose
- 4% trehalose
- water
during an unusually demanding exercise protocol lasting approximately five hours.[7]
Participants combined prolonged moderate-intensity cycling with repeated high-intensity Wingate tests.
No significant difference in late-stage exercise performance was found between the 4%, 6% and 8% trehalose solutions.[7]
The researchers proposed that lower-concentration trehalose could therefore have potential as part of a mixed-carbohydrate drink.[7]
This is particularly interesting for sports-nutrition formulation because lower trehalose concentrations leave room for:
- other carbohydrate sources
- electrolytes
- flavouring
- other functional ingredients.
Why Mixed-Carbohydrate Formulations Are Interesting
Modern endurance products frequently contain more than one carbohydrate.
Different carbohydrates can differ in:
- digestion rate
- absorption
- intestinal transport
- sweetness
- metabolic response.
TREHA® adds another useful characteristic to the formulation toolkit:
a source of glucose that is digested and oxidised more gradually than several common rapid carbohydrates.
This means trehalose does not necessarily need to replace glucose, maltodextrin or other sports carbohydrates.
It can instead be considered as one component of a deliberately designed carbohydrate system.
The 2022 researchers specifically identified mixed-carbohydrate drinks as a promising area for further trehalose development.[7]
The Strongest Direct Performance Evidence
A particularly important study was published in 2024.[8]
Thirteen male amateur cyclists completed four separate trials.
During 100 minutes of varied-intensity cycling they consumed:
- trehalose at 30 g/hour
- isomaltulose at 30 g/hour
- maltodextrin at 60 g/hour
- water.
They then completed a 20-minute cycling time trial.[8]
This is particularly useful research because it measured actual endurance performance rather than relying only on metabolic markers.
Approximately 5% More Work Than Water
During the subsequent time trial, cyclists completed:
- 302 ± 39 kJ with trehalose
- 287 ± 48 kJ with water.[8]
The difference was statistically significant.
This equates to approximately 5% more total work during the time trial following trehalose supplementation compared with water.
The researchers concluded that trehalose supplementation during endurance exercise improved cycling performance compared with placebo and represented an appropriate carbohydrate source for exercise lasting up to approximately two hours.[8]
This currently provides some of the clearest direct human-performance evidence for trehalose during endurance exercise.
How Did Trehalose Compare with Other Carbohydrates?
The 2024 trial did not establish that trehalose was superior to isomaltulose or maltodextrin.[8]
That is useful when considering where TREHA® fits commercially.
Trehalose is not simply another carbohydrate competing to be described as the fastest or most powerful.
Its value lies in a distinctive combination of properties:
- genuine carbohydrate energy
- more gradual glucose response
- lower insulin response than glucose
- demonstrated oxidation during exercise
- human endurance-performance evidence
- low sweetness.
For product developers, that makes TREHA® another tool with a different metabolic and sensory profile.
What Does the Exercise Research Show Overall?
Across the human studies, trehalose has been shown to:
- produce a more gradual glucose response than glucose[1,2]
- produce a smaller insulin response than glucose[1,2]
- result in fewer cases of rebound hypoglycaemia than glucose in one pre-exercise cycling study[2]
- be oxidised and used as carbohydrate fuel during prolonged exercise[3]
- be oxidised more gradually than maltose[3]
- support a greater contribution from fat metabolism than glucose in some exercise protocols[3,4]
- maintain or improve performance in several prolonged-exercise studies[4–6]
- improve 20-minute cycling time-trial performance compared with water in a 2024 randomised trial.[8]
Taken together, the studies position TREHA® as a distinctive endurance carbohydrate rather than simply another sweetener.
Low Sweetness Is a Practical Advantage
TREHA® has another characteristic particularly relevant to endurance nutrition:
it is only about 40% as sweet as ordinary sugar.[9]
This matters when athletes are consuming carbohydrate repeatedly over several hours.
Highly sweet drinks, gels and foods can become increasingly difficult to consume during prolonged activity.
TREHA® allows a meaningful amount of carbohydrate to be incorporated without creating the same sweetness as sucrose.
This makes it particularly interesting for:
- endurance drinks
- energy gels
- sports foods
- bars
- chews
- long-duration fuelling products.
Its relatively mild sweetness can also make it easier to combine with other carbohydrates and flavour systems.
For more on the difference between trehalose and conventional sugar, see Trehalose vs Sugar: What's the Difference? →.
TREHA® Is a Genuine Carbohydrate
TREHA® is not a non-caloric sweetener or stimulant.
It is a carbohydrate composed of two glucose units and provides approximately 4 kcal per gram — broadly comparable with conventional sugars.[9]
Its interest for sports nutrition comes from the way that carbohydrate is digested and delivered.
That distinguishes it from ingredients such as:
- caffeine
- electrolytes
- artificial sweeteners
- non-caloric flavour ingredients.
TREHA® contributes actual carbohydrate energy.
Before Exercise or During Exercise?
Research supports potential use in both situations.
Before Exercise
The pre-exercise cycling research found:
- a substantially smaller glucose response than glucose
- a substantially smaller insulin response
- fewer cases of rebound hypoglycaemia under the conditions tested.[2]
This makes trehalose interesting for pre-exercise carbohydrate formulations where a more gradual metabolic response is desirable.
During Exercise
Studies during exercise show that trehalose:
- is oxidised as an external carbohydrate fuel[3]
- can contribute to prolonged exercise performance[4–6]
- has been studied successfully at drink concentrations between 4% and 8%[4,5,7]
- improved subsequent cycling time-trial performance compared with water when supplied at 30 g/hour.[8]
The two uses therefore offer related but distinct formulation opportunities.
What Amounts Have Been Studied?
Human exercise studies have investigated a broad range of trehalose intakes.
| Application | Trehalose investigated |
|---|---|
| Pre-exercise cycling | 75 g, 45 minutes before exercise |
| Prolonged cycling oxidation study | Approximately 1.1 g/min carbohydrate |
| Prolonged cycling | 8% solution |
| Distance-runner study | 6% solution |
| Long intermittent exercise | 4%, 6% and 8% solutions |
| 2024 cycling trial | 30 g/hour |
These are published research protocols rather than universal athlete recommendations.[2–8]
The most recent direct performance trial provides a particularly useful formulation reference: 30 g trehalose per hour during an exercise protocol lasting approximately two hours.[8]
Trehalose Drink Concentrations Used in Research
Several studies have used trehalose dissolved in water at concentrations between 4% and 8%.[4,5,7]
Translated directly into 500 mL of water:
| Research concentration | TREHA® in 500 mL |
|---|---|
| 4% | 20 g |
| 6% | 30 g |
| 8% | 40 g |
These figures simply translate concentrations used in published research.
For sports-product development, the 4–6% range is particularly interesting because it leaves formulation space for other carbohydrates, electrolytes and flavour ingredients.[7]
TREHA® Compared with Glucose
The distinction is straightforward.
| Glucose | TREHA® trehalose | |
|---|---|---|
| Structure | Single glucose molecule | Two glucose molecules |
| Digestion | Immediately absorbable | Must first be hydrolysed by trehalase |
| Blood-glucose response | Rapid | More gradual in human studies |
| Insulin response | Higher | Lower than glucose in controlled studies |
| Exercise use | Rapid carbohydrate fuel | Demonstrated exercise carbohydrate fuel |
| Exogenous oxidation | Rapid | More gradual than maltose |
| Sweetness | Strong | About 40% as sweet as sucrose |
Neither profile is appropriate for every situation.
They offer different characteristics that can be used individually or together in sports-nutrition formulations.
TREHA® Compared with Maltodextrin
Maltodextrin is widely used in endurance nutrition because it provides rapidly available carbohydrate with relatively low sweetness.
The 2024 cycling study compared maltodextrin and trehalose within the same experiment.[8]
Maltodextrin produced higher circulating glucose during the initial 100-minute cycling period.
Trehalose produced a more gradual response while still improving subsequent time-trial performance compared with water.[8]
The study did not demonstrate performance superiority for one carbohydrate over another.
For formulators, this suggests an interesting approach:
Trehalose can complement rapid carbohydrates rather than necessarily replacing them.
Where TREHA® May Be Particularly Interesting
The characteristics observed in the research make trehalose especially interesting for sustained activity.
Potential applications include:
- long-distance cycling
- running
- hiking
- mountaineering
- trekking
- adventure racing
- endurance events
- expedition nutrition
- prolonged military activity
- other sustained physical activity.
In these settings, carbohydrate needs to do more than simply produce the fastest possible rise in glucose.
Products also need to be:
- palatable over long periods
- easy to consume repeatedly
- compatible with hydration
- capable of delivering meaningful carbohydrate
- suitable for combination with electrolytes and other nutrients.
TREHA® offers a combination of mild sweetness and a distinctive metabolic profile that makes it particularly interesting for this type of formulation.
The Opportunity for Sports-Nutrition Development
The human research now provides a substantial foundation for further product development.
The evidence includes:
- controlled glucose and insulin studies
- trained cyclists
- collegiate distance runners
- prolonged exercise
- isotope measurement of carbohydrate oxidation
- repeated high-intensity exercise
- drink concentrations from 4–8%
- direct time-trial performance testing.[1–8]
The strongest commercial proposition is therefore straightforward:
TREHA® is a genuine carbohydrate fuel that is digested and delivered more gradually than rapidly absorbed glucose, with human research supporting its use before and during prolonged exercise.
Combined with its low sweetness, this creates opportunities across endurance drinks, gels, bars and other long-duration fuelling products.
Developing Sports-Nutrition Products with Trehalose UK
Trehalose UK supplies genuine Japanese TREHA® manufactured by Nagase Viita and welcomes enquiries from sports-nutrition manufacturers, endurance-food businesses, product developers, coaches, athletes and research organisations.
For development and smaller-scale testing, see:
For commercial manufacturing quantities:
Bulk TREHA® Supply — 200kg to 1 Tonne+ →
If you are developing an endurance drink, gel, bar or other sports-nutrition product using trehalose, contact Trehalose UK → to discuss your requirements.
Further Reading
Trehalose and Blood Sugar: What Does the Research Show? →
Trehalose vs Sugar: What's the Difference? →
References & Further Reading
[1] Chiyo Yoshizane, Akiko Mizote, Mika Yamada, et al. 2017. “Glycemic, Insulinemic and Incretin Responses after Oral Trehalose Ingestion in Healthy Subjects.” Nutrition Journal 16: 9. Human crossover study comparing 25 g trehalose with glucose.
[2] Roy L. P. G. Jentjens and Asker E. Jeukendrup. 2003. “Effects of Pre-Exercise Ingestion of Trehalose, Galactose and Glucose on Subsequent Metabolism and Cycling Performance.” European Journal of Applied Physiology 88: 459–465. DOI: 10.1007/s00421-002-0729-7.
[3] Michelle C. Venables, Fred Brouns, and Asker E. Jeukendrup. 2008. “Oxidation of Maltose and Trehalose During Prolonged Moderate-Intensity Exercise.” Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 40, no. 9: 1653–1659. DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e318175716c.
[4] Tsuyoshi Wadazumi et al. 2019. “Effects of a Single Ingestion of Trehalose During Prolonged Exercise.” Sports 7, no. 5: 100. DOI: 10.3390/sports7050100.
[5] Naomi Hamada, Tsuyoshi Wadazumi, Yoko Hirata, et al. 2021. “Single Ingestion of Trehalose Enhances Prolonged Exercise Performance by Effective Use of Glucose and Lipid in Healthy Men.” Nutrients 13, no. 5: 1439. DOI: 10.3390/nu13051439.
[6] Yoshio Suzuki, Kotaro Sato, Keishoku Sakuraba, et al. 2020. “Pre-Exercise Trehalose Ingestion Enhanced Exercise Performance in Male Collegiate Distance Runners.” Natural Product Communications 15, no. 7. DOI: 10.1177/1934578X20933727.
[7] Naomi Hamada, Tsuyoshi Wadazumi, Yoko Hirata, Hitoshi Watanabe, Nobuko Hongu, and Norie Arai. 2022. “Effects of Trehalose Solutions at Different Concentrations on High-Intensity Intermittent Exercise Performance.” Nutrients 14, no. 9: 1776. DOI: 10.3390/nu14091776.
[8] Nathan Gobbi de Oliveira et al. 2024. “Trehalose Improved 20-min Cycling Time-Trial Performance After 100-min Cycling in Amateur Cyclists.” International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism 34, no. 4: 199–206. DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2023-0241.
[9] Nagase Food Ingredients. “TREHA® FAQs.” Manufacturer information covering TREHA® composition, nutritional properties and relative sweetness. NAGASE reports TREHA® as approximately 38% as sweet as sucrose in a 5% solution; Trehalose UK uses the practical consumer description “about 40% as sweet as ordinary sugar”.